|
Some English 306 Report Notes
Organizing the Report
Outlining the Report
Drafting the Report
Body
Supplementary Sections
Writing Style
Sources
Revising
Proofreading
Now that you've planned your report and begun collecting data for
it, you're ready to begin writing the report. Although much of the planning in the report
process is done before the data is collected, the written presentation of your findings
requires its own stage of planning. The format, the organization, and the structure of the
report are decisions you must make before and as you write.
Organizing the Report
You've organized your data to simplify the processes of research and
analysis. Now you have to assemble your findings—imposing unity, order, logic, even
beauty on them. You have to choose an order of presentation. You have to decide where each
piece of the puzzle fits and when to present your overall conclusions and recommendations.
The most efficient organizational plan is to discuss the most
important topic first, followed in order by topics of decreasing importance. Or,
when you're preparing a recommendation report, you may save the most important topic for
last, so that it's fresh in the reader's mind.
For most analytical and recommendation reports, where the purpose is
to analyze the data and possibly recommend a solution, the most logical arrangement is to
organize the data by criteria. Factor the problem into its component subproblems, and then
use those factors as the basis for organizing the report.
In practice, you might use a combination of organizational plans.
Remember: Your objective here is to help the reader understand and appreciate the
information and your recommendations.
Academic reports and many business reports traditionally present conclusions and
recommendations at the end of the report. The rationale here is that conclusions
cannot be drawn until the data has been presented and analyzed, and that recommendations
cannot be made until conclusions have been drawn.
Outlining the Report
A formal outline provides an orderly visual representation of the
report, showing clearly which points are going to be covered, the order in which they are
going to be covered, and their relationship to the rest of the report. Its purpose is to
guide the writer in structuring the report. Use the working title of your report as the
title of your outline. Then, use uppercase roman numerals for the major headings, arabic
numerals for second-level subheadings, and lowercase letters for third-level subheadings.
1. Talking versus generic headings. Headings
play an important role in helping focus the reader's attention and in creating unity and
coherence. Talking headings identify not only the topic of the section but also the
major conclusion; they can serve as a preview or executive summary of the entire report. Generic
headings identify only the topic of the section, without giving the conclusion. Most
formal reports and all reports written following the indirect plan use generic headings.
2. Parallelism. Noun phrases are probably the most common
form of heading, but you can also use participle phrases, partial statements (the verb is
missing), statements, or questions. You must keep the headings parallel within the same
level.
3. Length and number of headings. Headings that are too long
lose some of their effectiveness. The shorter the heading, the more emphasis it receives.
But headings must be long enough to convey meaning. Too many headings weaken the unity of
a report; too few headings leave the reader with page after page of solid copy. The reader
should have a chance to stop periodically and refocus attention.
4. Balance. Maintain a sense of balance within and among
sections.
Drafting the Report
The written presentation of your research efforts is the only
evidence the reader has of the effort that's gone into the project.
Drafting the Body
1. Introduction. The introduction sets the stage for
understanding the findings that follow. In this section, present the background of the
problem, the reason for the study, authorization for the report, a hypothesis or problem
statement and subproblems, a definition of terms (if needed), and a description of the
procedures used to gather and analyze the data.
2. Findings. The findings are the major contribution of a
report and make up the largest section of the report.
a. Discuss and interpret your data.
b. Organize this section on the basis of time, location, importance, or criteria.
c. Using objective language, present the information clearly, concisely, and accurately.
d. Visual aids and tables should be self-explanatory.
e. Summarize important information from tables and figures. Discuss only what merits
emphasis.
f. Place the table or figure immediately below the first paragraph of text in which the
reference to it occurs, or at the top of the following page.
g. Use emphasis, subordination, preview, summary, and transition to make the report read
clearly and smoothly.
3. Summary, conclusions, and recommendations. In the summary,
conclusions, and recommendations, briefly review the problem and the procedures you used
to solve the problem, and provide an overview of your major findings.
a. Be sure that your conclusions stem from your findings, and that
your recommendations stem from your conclusions.
b. Provide evidence to support your conclusions and recommendations.
Drafting the Supplementary Sections
The length, formality, and complexity of the report, and the
reader's needs affect the number of parts that precede and follow the body of the report.
1. Title page. A title page is typically used for
reports typed in manuscript format. It contains the title of the report, the names of the
reader and writer, the date the report was transmitted, and other relevant information.
2. Transmittal document. Formal reports and all reports that
are not hand-delivered to the reader should be accompanied by a transmittal document.
Use a conversational, personal style of writing and the direct organizational plan in this
letter or memo.
3. Executive summary. An executive summary (abstract,
synopsis) is a condensed version of the body of the report. It's especially appropriate
when the conclusions and recommendations will be welcomed by the reader, when the report
is long, or when you know your reader appreciates having this kind of information up
front. Keep the summary short, but include as much information as possible. (Your
assumption is that the person reading the summary is not going to read the report.)
4. Table of contents. If your report is long, with many
headings and subheadings, use a table of contents. Typically only two or three levels of
headings are included in the table of contents; the page numbers identify the pages on
which section headings appear.
5. Appendix. The appendix contains supplementary information
or documents. Label each appendix separately, by letter.
6. References. The reference list contains the complete
citation of any secondary sources referred to in the report; it's the very last part of
the report.
Developing an Effective Writing Style
1. Tone. Whatever the structure of your report, its tone is
typically more objective and less conversational than an informal memo. Avoid
colloquialisms, attempts at humor, subjectivity, and exaggeration.
2. Pronouns. The use of first- and second-person pronouns
helps create an effective, informal writing style. Formal language, however, focuses
attention on the information instead of the writer. So formal reports should use
third-person pronouns. Avoid the passive voice. And don't use he as a generic
pronoun.
3. Verb tense. Use the verb tense (past, present, or future)
that is appropriate at the time the reader reads the report—not necessarily at the
time you write the report. Use the past tense to describe procedures and the findings of a
study that's been completed, but use the present tense for conclusions from that study.
And when possible, use the present tense to present your own data and findings.
4. Emphasis and subordination. Only rarely do all the data
consistently point to one decision. Your reader must be aware of the importance you attach
to each point. Therefore you should use emphasis and subordination techniques.
5. Coherence. To achieve coherence in a report, use previews,
summaries, and transitions regularly. Don't depend on your heading structure only for
coherence. Your report should read smoothly and coherently without headings. Don't repeat
the exact wording of a heading in the narrative that follows. And always introduce a topic
before dividing it into subtopics.
Paraphrasing Versus Direct Quotation
- A paraphrase is a summary or restatement of a passage in your
own words—not just a rearrangement of words or the omission of a word or two. You
must understand the writer's idea and then restate it in your own language.
- Use direct quotation—the exact words of
another—only for definitions or text that is so precise that it cannot be improved
on. Enclose all direct quotations in quotation marks in your notes, check their accuracy,
and include appropriate page numbers.
Documenting Your Sources
Documentation is the identification of the sources of material
or concepts that are not your own. Documentation should appear in the text or in the
reference list.
1. What needs to be documented. Document all material in your
report that comes from secondary sources. Give enough information about a source to enable
the reader to locate it.
2. What does not need to be documented. Don't document
facts that are common knowledge to your readers or facts that can be verified easily.
3. Forms of documentation. The three major forms for
documenting the ideas, information, and quotations of other people in a report are
endnotes, footnotes, and author-date references.
a. Endnotes use superior (raised) numbers to identify
secondary sources in the text and then provide the actual citations in a numbered list at
the end of the report. Number endnotes consecutively throughout the report.
b. For years, footnotes were the traditional way of citing
sources, especially in scholarly reports. A footnote provides the complete citation at the
bottom of the page.
c. The author-date format is a reasonable compromise between
endnotes and footnotes.
(1) In the text, insert the author's surname and the year of
publication. (If the author's name appears in the text, just cite the year of publication
in parentheses.)
(2) Place the parenthetical reference just before a punctuation
mark, if possible, or at some other logical place in the sentence.
Distortion by Omission
Distortion by omission can occur when using quotations out of
context, when omitting certain relevant background information, or when including only the
most extreme or most interesting data.
Revising
Once you've produced a first draft of your report, put it away for a
few days, and then review it. Look for more effective means of communicating your ideas to
the reader.
1. Revise first for content. Be sure that you have enough—but
not too much—information to support each point; that the information is accurate; and
that it's presented efficiently and logically.
2. Next revise for style. Look for clarity, a variety of sentence
types, appropriate use of active and passive voice, unity and coherence, overall tone,
nondiscriminatory language, and appropriate emphasis and subordination.
3. Finally, revise for correctness. Identify any problems with
grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage.
Enhancing Reports Through Document Design
Design reports for maximum impact and effectiveness.
1. Keep the report organized rhrough talking and parallel headings
2. Use white space to advantage.
3. Select a suitable line length and type size.
4. Determine an appropriate justification format.
5 . Format paragraphs correctly.
6 . Emphasize words and ideas appropriately.
7. Format lists for readability.
8. Use graphics in moderation, but don't be afraid to experiment.
Proofreading
After you make your revisions and format the document, proofread
each page one last time.
1. Check for typographical errors.
2. Check appearance.
3. If you formatted the report on a computer, be sure that in moving
passages you didn't inadvertently delete a line or repeat a passage.
4. Run the spell checker a final time after you've made all changes;
and if you have a grammar software program, evaluate your writing electronically.
5. Your reports should reflect the highest standards of scholarship,
critical thinking, and care.
|
