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Some English 306 Report Notes
Organizing the Report Now that you've planned your report and begun collecting data for it, you're ready to begin writing the report. Although much of the planning in the report process is done before the data is collected, the written presentation of your findings requires its own stage of planning. The format, the organization, and the structure of the report are decisions you must make before and as you write. You've organized your data to simplify the processes of research and analysis. Now you have to assemble your findings—imposing unity, order, logic, even beauty on them. You have to choose an order of presentation. You have to decide where each piece of the puzzle fits and when to present your overall conclusions and recommendations. The most efficient organizational plan is to discuss the most important topic first, followed in order by topics of decreasing importance. Or, when you're preparing a recommendation report, you may save the most important topic for last, so that it's fresh in the reader's mind. For most analytical and recommendation reports, where the purpose is to analyze the data and possibly recommend a solution, the most logical arrangement is to organize the data by criteria. Factor the problem into its component subproblems, and then use those factors as the basis for organizing the report. In practice, you might use a combination of
organizational plans. Remember: Your objective here is to help the reader
understand and appreciate the information and your recommendations. Outlining the Report A formal outline provides an orderly visual representation of the report, showing clearly which points are going to be covered, the order in which they are going to be covered, and their relationship to the rest of the report. Its purpose is to guide the writer in structuring the report. Use the working title of your report as the title of your outline. Then, use uppercase roman numerals for the major headings, arabic numerals for second-level subheadings, and lowercase letters for third-level subheadings. 1. Talking versus generic headings. Headings play an important role in helping focus the reader's attention and in creating unity and coherence. Talking headings identify not only the topic of the section but also the major conclusion; they can serve as a preview or executive summary of the entire report. Generic headings identify only the topic of the section, without giving the conclusion. Most formal reports and all reports written following the indirect plan use generic headings. 2. Parallelism. Noun phrases are probably the most common form of heading, but you can also use participle phrases, partial statements (the verb is missing), statements, or questions. You must keep the headings parallel within the same level. 3. Length and number of headings. Headings that are too long lose some of their effectiveness. The shorter the heading, the more emphasis it receives. But headings must be long enough to convey meaning. Too many headings weaken the unity of a report; too few headings leave the reader with page after page of solid copy. The reader should have a chance to stop periodically and refocus attention. 4. Balance. Maintain a sense of balance within and among sections. The written presentation of your research efforts is the only evidence the reader has of the effort that's gone into the project. Drafting the Body 1. Introduction. The introduction sets the stage for understanding the findings that follow. In this section, present the background of the problem, the reason for the study, authorization for the report, a hypothesis or problem statement and subproblems, a definition of terms (if needed), and a description of the procedures used to gather and analyze the data. 2. Findings. The findings are the major contribution of a report and make up the largest section of the report. a. Discuss and interpret your data. 3. Summary, conclusions, and recommendations. In the summary, conclusions, and recommendations, briefly review the problem and the procedures you used to solve the problem, and provide an overview of your major findings. a. Be sure that your conclusions stem from
your findings, and that your recommendations stem from your conclusions. Drafting the Supplementary Sections The length, formality, and complexity of the report, and the reader's needs affect the number of parts that precede and follow the body of the report. 1. Title page. A title page is typically used for reports typed in manuscript format. It contains the title of the report, the names of the reader and writer, the date the report was transmitted, and other relevant information. 2. Transmittal document. Formal reports and all reports that are not hand-delivered to the reader should be accompanied by a transmittal document. Use a conversational, personal style of writing and the direct organizational plan in this letter or memo. 3. Executive summary. An executive summary (abstract, synopsis) is a condensed version of the body of the report. It's especially appropriate when the conclusions and recommendations will be welcomed by the reader, when the report is long, or when you know your reader appreciates having this kind of information up front. Keep the summary short, but include as much information as possible. (Your assumption is that the person reading the summary is not going to read the report.) 4. Table of contents. If your report is long, with many headings and subheadings, use a table of contents. Typically only two or three levels of headings are included in the table of contents; the page numbers identify the pages on which section headings appear. 5. Appendix. The appendix contains supplementary information or documents. Label each appendix separately, by letter. 6. References. The reference list contains the complete citation of any secondary sources referred to in the report; it's the very last part of the report. Developing an Effective Writing Style 1. Tone. Whatever the structure of your report, its tone is typically more objective and less conversational than an informal memo. Avoid colloquialisms, attempts at humor, subjectivity, and exaggeration. 2. Pronouns. The use of first- and second-person pronouns helps create an effective, informal writing style. Formal language, however, focuses attention on the information instead of the writer. So formal reports should use third-person pronouns. Avoid the passive voice. And don't use he as a generic pronoun. 3. Verb tense. Use the verb tense (past, present, or future) that is appropriate at the time the reader reads the report—not necessarily at the time you write the report. Use the past tense to describe procedures and the findings of a study that's been completed, but use the present tense for conclusions from that study. And when possible, use the present tense to present your own data and findings. 4. Emphasis and subordination. Only rarely do all the data consistently point to one decision. Your reader must be aware of the importance you attach to each point. Therefore you should use emphasis and subordination techniques. 5. Coherence. To achieve coherence in a report, use previews, summaries, and transitions regularly. Don't depend on your heading structure only for coherence. Your report should read smoothly and coherently without headings. Don't repeat the exact wording of a heading in the narrative that follows. And always introduce a topic before dividing it into subtopics. Paraphrasing Versus Direct Quotation
Documenting Your Sources -- Documentation is the identification of the sources of material or concepts that are not your own. Documentation should appear in the text or in the reference list. 1. What needs to be documented. Document all material in your report that comes from secondary sources. Give enough information about a source to enable the reader to locate it. 2. What does not need to be documented. Don't document facts that are common knowledge to your readers or facts that can be verified easily. 3. Forms of documentation. The three major forms for documenting the ideas, information, and quotations of other people in a report are endnotes, footnotes, and author-date references. a. Endnotes use superior (raised) numbers to identify secondary sources in the text and then provide the actual citations in a numbered list at the end of the report. Number endnotes consecutively throughout the report. b. For years, footnotes were the traditional way of citing sources, especially in scholarly reports. A footnote provides the complete citation at the bottom of the page. c. The author-date format is a reasonable compromise between endnotes and footnotes. (1) In the text, insert the author's surname and the year of publication. (If the author's name appears in the text, just cite the year of publication in parentheses.) (2) Place the parenthetical reference just before a punctuation mark, if possible, or at some other logical place in the sentence. Distortion by Omission Distortion by omission can occur when using quotations out of context, when omitting certain relevant background information, or when including only the most extreme or most interesting data. Once you've produced a first draft of your report, put it away for a few days, and then review it. Look for more effective means of communicating your ideas to the reader. 1. Revise first for content. Be sure that you have enough—but not too much—information to support each point; that the information is accurate; and that it's presented efficiently and logically. 2. Next revise for style. Look for clarity, a variety of sentence types, appropriate use of active and passive voice, unity and coherence, overall tone, nondiscriminatory language, and appropriate emphasis and subordination. 3. Finally, revise for correctness. Identify any problems with grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. Enhancing Reports Through Document Design Design reports for maximum impact and effectiveness. 1. Keep the report organized rhrough talking and parallel headings 2. Use white space to advantage. 3. Select a suitable line length and type size. 4. Determine an appropriate justification format. 5 . Format paragraphs correctly. 6 . Emphasize words and ideas appropriately. 7. Format lists for readability. 8. Use graphics in moderation, but don't be afraid to experiment. After you make your revisions and format the document, proofread each page one last time. 1. Check for typographical errors. 2. Check appearance. 3. If you formatted the report on a computer, be sure that in moving passages you didn't inadvertently delete a line or repeat a passage. 4. Run the spell checker a final time after you've made all changes; and if you have a grammar software program, evaluate your writing electronically. 5. Your reports should reflect the highest standards of scholarship, critical thinking, and care.
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